ImportantGarden

Aequi

2005-11-18T05:30:00.000-08:00

Ancient people of Italy originally inhabiting the region watered by the tributaries of the Avens River (modern Velino). Long hostile to Rome, they became especially menacing in the 5th century BC, advancing to the Alban Hills. Although repulsed by the Romans in 431, the Aequi were not completely subdued by Rome until the end of the Second Samnite War (304 BC), when they received civitas

Vacuum Technology

2005-10-16T01:40:00.000-07:00

Capacities >are available from 1/2 to 1,000 cubic feet per minute, operating from atmospheric pressure down to as low as 2 ´ 10-2 torr for single-stage pumps and less than 5 ´ 10-3 torr for two-stage pumps. The pumps develop their full speed from atmosphere to about one torr, the speed then decreasing to zero at their ultimate pressures. One device of this type, useful for pumping both liquids

Swanton, John Reed

2005-07-28T23:05:00.000-07:00

Swanton studied with anthropologist Franz Boas at Columbia University for two years but received

Epidendrum

2005-07-27T05:00:00.000-07:00

Genus of tropical orchids, family Orchidaceae, with about 1,000 species that are distributed from southeastern North America to central South America. Epidendrum species are primarily epiphytic (supported by other plants and having aerial roots exposed to the humid atmosphere), but some grow on rocks or in soil. Flowers are usually borne on a terminal

Cyrenaica

2005-07-24T17:50:00.000-07:00

Also spelled Cirenaica , Arabic Barqah historic region of North Africa and until 1963 a province of the United Kingdom of Libya. As early as c. 631 BC Greek colonists settled the northern half of ancient Cyrenaica, known then as Pentapolis for the five major cities they established: Euhesperides (Banghazi), Barce (al-Marj), Cyrene (Shahhat), Apollonia (Marsa Susah), and Tenchira (Tukrah). In later times Ptolemais (Tulmaythah) and Daims-Zarine

Arron, Henck

2005-07-07T20:30:00.000-07:00

Arron worked in banks in The Netherlands and Dutch Guiana before entering politics in 1963. He was elected to the Staten (Suriname legislature) that

Differential

2005-06-29T01:00:00.000-07:00

In mathematics, an expression based on the derivative (q.v.) of a function, useful for approximating certain values of the function. The derivative of a function at the point x0, written as f¢(x0), is defined as the limit as Dx approaches 0 of the quotient Dy/Dx, in which Dy is f(x0 + Dx) - f(x0). Because the derivative is defined as the limit, the closer Dx is to 0, the closer will be the quotient to the derivative. Therefore,

Sentimental Comedy

2005-06-15T18:15:00.000-07:00

A dramatic genre of the 18th century, denoting plays in which middle-class protagonists triumphantly overcome a series of moral trials. Such comedy aimed at producing tears rather than laughter. Sentimental comedies reflected contemporary philosophical conceptions of humans as inherently good but capable of being led astray through bad example. By an appeal

Argentina, The Videla regime and the Dirty War

2005-06-03T02:55:00.000-07:00

Five days after the coup a three-man military junta filled the presidency with Lieutenant General Jorge Rafaél Videla. The junta closed Congress, imposed censorship, banned trade unions, and brought state and municipal government under military control. Meanwhile Videla initiated the infamous Process of National Reorganization, known subsequently as the

Frederick William

2005-05-31T21:30:00.000-07:00

Elector of Hesse-Kassel from 1847 after 16 years' co-regency with his father; he was noted for his reactionary stand against liberalizing trends manifested during the revolutionary events of 1848. In 1850 he re-instated an unpopular adviser, Hans Daniel Hassenpflug, who called on the German Confederation to restore by force the authority of the elector. At the end of

Larionov, Mikhail Fyodorovich

2005-05-17T00:30:00.000-07:00

Larionov's early work was influenced by Impressionism and Symbolism, but with the painting “Glass” (1909) he introduced

Argentina, Domestic politics

2005-05-15T18:20:00.000-07:00

The new governor saw clearly the ambiguities and dangers of such widespread support, and, although he was identified as a federalist, he ruled as a centralist, with Buenos Aires as his main power base. Rosas manipulated factions of labourers, gauchos, and elites from the estancias and set himself up as the arbiter of a delicate and constantly threatened balance between

Cuman

2005-05-13T15:50:00.000-07:00

Hungarian Kun, member of a nomadic Turkish people, comprising the western branch of the Kipchak confederation until the Mongol invasion (1237) forced them to seek asylum in Hungary. During the 12th century the Cumans acted as auxiliary troops for the Russian princes and in that capacity clashed with Hungarian expeditionary forces; but, by the beginning of the 13th century, they had become

China, Decline and fall

2005-03-15T15:24:00.000-08:00

Careful balancing of powers in the bureaucracy, through which the rulers acted and from which they received advice and information, was essential to good government in China. The demonstrated success of this principle in early Pei Sung so impressed later scholars that they described it as the art of government. It became a lost art under Shen-tsung, however, in the

Narrabri

2005-03-14T07:10:00.000-08:00

Town, northeastern New South Wales, Australia. It lies along Narrabri Creek (tributary of the Namoi River), just west of the Nandewar Range. Surveyed in 1859 and declared a municipality in 1883, it derives its name from an Aboriginal word meaning �big creek� and �forked sticks.� On the Newell Highway, with regular air and rail service to Sydney (264 miles [425 km] southeast) and Brisbane, Narrabri

Deere, John

2005-03-11T14:30:00.000-08:00

Apprenticed to a blacksmith at age 17, Deere set up his own smithy trade four years later and, for 12 years, did work in various towns of his native Vermont. In 1837, when 33 years old, he headed west and eventually settled in Grand Detour, Ill., where he set up a blacksmith's shop, and

Mardan

2005-03-07T18:38:00.000-08:00

Town and district in Peshawar division, North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. The town, the district headquarters, lies just north of the Kalpani River; it is connected by road and rail with Dargai (Malakand Pass), Nowshera, and Peshawar, 30 mi (50 km) south-southwest. A growing industrial centre, it has textile and vegetable oil mills, a cigarette factory, and one of the largest sugar

Forberg, Friedrich Karl

2005-03-06T05:47:00.000-08:00

An exponent of the Idealist school developed by Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Forberg is best known for his essay �ber die Entwicklung des Begriffs Religion (1798; �On the Development of the Concept of Religion�), a work that occasioned Fichte's dismissal from the University of Jena on the

Teasdale, Sara

2005-03-05T22:23:00.000-08:00

Teasdale was educated privately and made frequent trips to Chicago, where she eventually became part of Harriet Monroe's Poetry magazine circle. Her first published poem appeared in the St. Louis, Missouri, weekly Reedy's

Ussachevsky, Vladimir (alexis)

2005-03-04T22:09:00.000-08:00

The son of Russian parents, Ussachevsky entered the United States in 1931 and thereupon studied at Pomona College, Claremont, Calif., and at the Eastman School of Music of the University of

Gobineau, Joseph-arthur, Comte De

2005-03-03T03:01:00.000-08:00

Gobineau was a member of an aristocratic royalist family. He went to Paris in 1835, held a succession of minor clerical

Resistencia

2005-03-02T20:54:00.000-08:00

City, capital of Chaco provincia, northeastern Argentina, on a stream that flows into the Paran� River at the river port of Barranqueras, 4 miles (6 km) southeast. Originally founded in the mid-18th century as San Fernando del R�o Negro (a Jesuit reducci�n [work mission] abandoned in 1773 after the order was suppressed), it was later reestablished in 1878 as a frontier colony settled by

Biblical Literature, The Letter of Paul to the Philippians

2005-03-02T20:46:00.000-08:00

In its present canonical form Philippians is, according to several scholars, a later collection of fragments of the correspondence of Paul with the congregation in Philippi that was founded by Paul himself. The first of the two major difficulties leading to this conclusion concerning redaction of the letter is created by a discrepancy between chapters 2 and 3 - i.e.,

Biblical Literature, The Letter of Paul to the Colossians

2005-03-01T11:17:00.000-08:00

Colossians presents the problem of having, on the one hand, numerous (though superficial) affinities with the circumstances of the Letter of Paul to Philemon while, on the other hand, being addressed mainly to a different situation. In this new situation he uses ideas and expressions that seem to be rather a development of Pauline ideas about the cosmic realm than

La Victoria

2005-03-01T05:22:00.000-08:00

Quarter and district of the Lima-Callao metropolitan area of Peru, south of downtown Lima. It is mainly residential, with slums in the north, pueblos j�venes (�young towns�), or squatter settlements, in the east, and middle-income housing in the south. The district is the site of Peru's largest wholesale and retail market area, near which are many light industries. La Victoria

Biblical Literature, The First Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians

2005-02-28T09:25:00.000-08:00

In all probability I Thessalonians is the earliest of Paul's letters, particularly because the memory of the events that led to the founding of that congregation are still fresh in the mind of the Apostle. The letter was written from Corinth. According to I Thessalonians, chapter 3, verse 2, Paul had sent Timothy to Thessalonica from Athens during his brief stay there,

Calabash Tree

2005-02-28T03:59:00.000-08:00

(Crescentia cujete), tree of the family Bignoniaceae, 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 feet) tall, that grows in Central and South America, the West Indies, and extreme southern Florida. It is often grown as an ornamental. The calabash tree produces large spherical fruits, up to 50 cm (20 inches) in diameter, the hard shells of which are useful as bowls, cups, and other water containers when hollowed out. The

Biblical Literature, The Second Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians

2005-02-27T02:34:00.000-08:00

A feature of II Thessalonians that resembles the otherwise most unusual feature of I Thessalonians is its excessively long thanksgiving. Within this thanksgiving there is an excursus dealing with the timing of the Parousia, but in II Thessalonians Paul aggressively argues against any expectation of an imminent coming of Christ that might be expected from

Sun Microsystems, Inc.

2005-02-26T03:48:00.001-08:00

American manufacturer of computer workstations, servers, and software with headquarters in Palo Alto, California.

Biblical Literature, The Pastoral Letters as a unit

2005-02-26T03:48:00.000-08:00

The First and Second Letters of Paul to Timothy and the Letter of Paul to Titus, three small epistles traditionally part of the Pauline corpus, are written not to churches nor to an individual concerning a special problem but to two individual addressees in their capacity as pastors, or leaders of their local churches. The purpose of the letters is to instruct, admonish,

Cranbrook, Gathorne Gathorne-hardy, 1st Earl Of, Viscount Cranbrook Of Hemsted, Baron Medway Of Hemsted Park

2005-02-25T15:35:00.000-08:00

Called to the bar in 1840, Hardy entered Parliament in 1856, earning a reputation as a skilled debater and a staunch Conservative. In 1858 - 59 he was under secretary in the Home Office. He entered the 14th Earl of Derby's

Biblical Literature, Content and problems

2005-02-25T13:57:00.000-08:00

Church offices are more developed in the Pastoral Letters than in Paul's time. There are presbyters and bishops, but these are sometimes used interchangeably and the monarchical episcopate is not yet depicted, although church offices appear to be heading in that direction. Requirements for office are strict and leaders are chosen and ordained by laying on of hands.

Wilamowitz-moellendorff, Ulrich Von

2005-02-24T22:29:00.000-08:00

Educated at the universities of Bonn and Berlin, Wilamowitz-Moellendorff served in the Franco-German War (1870) and traveled through Italy and Greece.

Biblical Literature, The Letter of Paul to Philemon

2005-02-24T05:58:00.000-08:00

From Ephesus, where he was imprisoned (c. 53 - 54), Paul wrote his shortest and most personal letter to a Phrygian Christian (probably from Colossae or nearby Laodicea) whose slave Onesimus had run away, after possibly having stolen money from his master. The slave apparently had met Paul in prison, was converted, and was being returned to his master with a letter from Paul appealing

Zacynthus

2005-02-23T15:02:00.000-08:00

Also spelled �Zakynthos�, Modern Greek �Z�kinthos�, French �Zante�, Italian �Zacinto� island, southernmost and third largest of the Ionian Islands (q.v.) of Greece, lying off the west coast of the Peloponnese. Including the tiny Strot�dhes Islands to the south, it constitutes the nom�s (department) of Z�kinthos. Zacynthus is indented by a deep bay with high cliffs on its south coast. The island has an area of 155 square miles (402 square km), the nom�s 157 square miles (407 square

Biblical Literature, Textual ambiguities

2005-02-23T04:38:00.000-08:00

The writing called the Letter to the Hebrews, which was known and accepted in the Eastern church by the 2nd century, was included also by the Western church as the 14th Pauline epistle when the canon of East and West was assimilated and fixed in 367. Hebrews has no salutation giving the name of either the writer or the addressees, although it does have a doxology and greeting

Biblical Literature, Christology in Hebrews

2005-02-22T19:36:00.000-08:00

The church is viewed as being in danger of discouragement in the face of persecution and possible apostasy. If faithless, church members risk total loss, for no second repentance is possible. Through his special Christology, the author seeks to help the readers by showing that Christ is the saviour superior to any other and that as Saviour, Son of God, High Priest, pioneer,

Robert Ii

2005-02-22T08:07:00.000-08:00

The eldest son of William I the Conqueror, Robert was recognized in boyhood as his father's successor in Normandy. Nevertheless he twice rebelled against his father (1077/78 and c. 1082 - 83) and

Biblical Literature, The Catholic Letters

2005-02-21T16:16:00.000-08:00

As the history of the New Testament canon shows, the seven so-called Catholic Letters (i.e., James, I and II Peter, I, II, and III John, and Jude) were among the last of the literature to be settled on before the agreement of East and West in 367. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, only I John and I Peter were universally recognized and, even after acceptance of all seven, their varying positions

China, Justice

2005-02-21T04:49:00.000-08:00

The legal apparatus that existed before the changes made during the Cultural Revolution has been resurrected. The State Council again has a Ministry of Justice, and procuratorial organs and a court system have been reestablished. The legal framework for this system has been provided through the adoption of various laws and legal codes. For the first time, the law

Smith, Gerrit

2005-02-20T08:02:00.000-08:00

Smith was born into a wealthy family. In about 1828 he became an active worker in the cause of temperance, and in his home village, Peterboro, he built one of the first temperance hotels in the country. He became

Biblical Literature, The Letter of James

2005-02-20T04:08:00.000-08:00

The Letter of James, though often criticized as having nothing specifically Christian in its content apart from its use of the phrase the �Lord Jesus Christ� and its salutation to a general audience depicted as the twelve tribes in the dispersion (the Diaspora), is actually a letter most representative of early Christian piety. It depicts the teachings of the early

Augustine, Saint

2005-02-19T14:12:00.000-08:00

Augustine's impact on the Middle Ages cannot be underestimated. Thousands of manuscripts survive, and many serious medieval libraries - possessing no more than a few hundred books in all - had more works of Augustine than of any other writer. His achievement is paradoxical inasmuch as - like a modern artist who makes more money posthumously than in life - most of it was

Biblical Literature, The First Letter of Peter

2005-02-19T06:14:00.000-08:00

The purpose of the First Letter of Peter is exhortation directed to �the exiles of the Dispersion� in Asia Minor in order that they �stand fast� in God's grace in the face of persecution. On the one hand, such persecution is viewed as part of the trials of the end-time that the community must undergo before the coming of the new age. On the other, persecution is viewed as a simple

Astika

2005-02-18T05:00:00.000-08:00

In Indian philosophy, any orthodox school of thought, defined as one that accepts the authority of the Vedas (sacred scriptures of ancient India); the superiority of the Brahmans (the class of priests), who are the expositors of the law (dharma); and a society made up of the four traditional classes (varna). The six orthodox philosophic systems are those of Samkhya and Yoga,

Biblical Literature, The Johannine Letters: I, II, and III John

2005-02-18T02:12:00.000-08:00

I John, though lacking any formal epistolary salutation or ending, directs itself to a circle

Austin, Stephen

2005-02-17T05:20:00.000-08:00

Raised on the Missouri frontier, Austin was educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, Ky., and served in the Missouri territorial legislature (1814 - 19). The economic panic of 1819 led his father, Moses Austin

Biblical Literature, The First Letter of John

2005-02-17T01:52:00.000-08:00

I John assumes a knowledge of the Johannine Gospel (the author of I John may be the ecclesiastical redactor of the Gospel According to John) and adds ethical admonition and instruction regarding the well-being of the church as it confronts heresy and stresses the lack of moral concern that springs from it. There is strong defense against the threat of a type of Gnosticism

Andong

2005-02-16T21:33:00.000-08:00

City, North Kyongsang do (province), east-central South Korea. It lies 215 miles (345 km) from the mouth of the Naktong River, at the terminus of its navigable section, near a multipurpose dam. The city has been in existence since the Three Kingdoms period (beginning c. 57 BC) under various names, and since the Koryo period (935 - 1392) it has been known by its present name. Until the end of the Choson (Yi) dynasty

Biblical Literature, The Second Letter of John

2005-02-16T01:41:00.000-08:00

II John warns a specific church (or perhaps churches), designated as �the elect lady and her children,� against the influence of the Docetic heresy combatted in I John, whose proponents lured Christians from �following the truth, just as we have been commanded by the Father.� In II John, as in the Gospel According to John and I John, the light - darkness images are similar to those

Biblical Literature, The Third Letter of John

2005-02-15T07:45:00.000-08:00

III John, addressed to Gaius, shows that the writer is concerned about and has responsibility as presbyter for the missionaries of the church. It is somewhat of a short note concerned with church discipline, encouraging hospitality to true missionaries, and thus not unconnected with true doctrine and the command of love.

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

2005-02-15T01:23:00.000-08:00

Mauna Loa, located in the south-central

Biblical Literature, The Letter of Jude

2005-02-14T13:08:00.000-08:00

The Letter of Jude, after a salutation that attributes it to Jude, the brother of James, and addresses itself to the church as a whole, develops the theme of the short letter - a polemic against heretics who have abandoned the transmitted traditional faith and who will thus be judged by the Lord. They deny Christ, and punishment similar to that of Sodom and Gomorrah in the

General Semantics

2005-02-14T02:08:00.000-08:00

A philosophy of language-meaning that was developed by Alfred Korzybski (1879 - 1950), a Polish-American scholar, and furthered by S.I. Hayakawa, Wendell Johnson, and others; it is the study of language as a representation of reality. Korzybski's theory was intended to improve the habits of response to environment. Drawing upon such varied disciplines as relativity theory, quantum

Biblical Literature, Overview

2005-02-13T16:54:00.000-08:00

The Ketuvim (the Writings or the Hagiographa), the third division of the Hebrew Bible, comprises a miscellaneous collection of sacred writings that were not classified in either the Torah or the Prophets. The collection is not a unified whole: it includes liturgical poetry (Psalms and Lamentations of Jeremiah), secular love poetry (Song of Solomon), wisdom literature

Biblical Literature, Purpose and theme

2005-02-13T00:55:00.000-08:00

The Revelation (i.e., Apocalypse) to John is an answer in apocalyptic terms to the needs of the church in time of persecution, as it awaits the end-time expected in the near future. The purpose of the book is to encourage and admonish the church to be steadfast and endure. The form of an apocalypse shows affinities with contemporary Jewish, Oriental, and Hellenistic writings

Mammal, Social behavior

2005-02-12T15:26:00.000-08:00

The dependence of the young mammal on its mother for nourishment has made possible a period of training. Such training permits the nongenetic transfer of information between generations. The ability of young mammals to learn from the experience of their elders has allowed a behavioral plasticity unknown in any other group of organisms and has been a primary

Biblical Literature, Authorship and style

2005-02-12T07:53:00.000-08:00

Apocalypticism was introduced into Asia Minor after AD 70 (the fall of Jerusalem), and c. 80 - 90 a prophetic circle was formed near Ephesus. Its leader was John, a prophet, who might well have been the author of Revelation, which is deeply steeped in apocalyptic traditions. The �Johannine circle� bearing the tradition of John, the Apostle of the Lord, and from which emerged the Gospel

Biblical Literature, Nature and significance

2005-02-11T20:08:00.000-08:00

The title New Testament Apocrypha may suggest that the books thus classified have or had a status comparable to that of the Old Testament Apocrypha and have been recognized as canonical. In a few instances such has been the case, but generally these books were accepted only by individual Christian writers or by minority heretical groups. The word apocryphal (secret)

Action Potential

2005-02-11T17:04:00.000-08:00

The brief (about one-thousandth of a second) reversal of electric polarization of the membrane of a nerve cell (neuron) or muscle cell. In the neuron it constitutes the nerve impulse, and in the muscle cell it produces the contraction required for all movement. Sometimes called a propagated potential because a wave of excitation is actively transmitted along the nerve

Houlton

2005-02-10T16:38:00.000-08:00

Town, seat (1839) of Aroostook county, northeastern Maine, U.S. It lies along the Meduxnekeag River 120 miles (193 km) northeast of Bangor. Settled in 1805 and named for one of its founders, Joseph Houlton, it soon developed as a lumbering town and was incorporated in 1831. From 1828 to 1847 it was a military station (Hancock Barracks [partially restored] on Garrison Hill) that played an active role during the

Biblical Literature, The New Testament Apocryphal writings

2005-02-10T11:26:00.000-08:00

This section will classify these documents in relation to their literary forms: gospels, acts, letters, and apocalypses.

Alipur Duar

2005-02-09T22:50:00.000-08:00

City, northeastern West Bengal state, northeastern India, just north of the Kalyani River. Connected by road with Jalpaiguri, the city is an important market centre for rice, tobacco, and jute; an annual agricultural produce and stock fair is held there. Rice milling is an important industry. Alipur Duar was declared a municipality in 1951. Pop. (1991) 65,421.

Biblical Literature, Gospels

2005-02-09T07:05:00.000-08:00

A few papyrus fragments come from gospels not known by name (e.g., Egerton Papyrus 2, Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840, Strasbourg Papyrus 5 - 6). There are also the Gospel produced in the 2nd century by Marcion (a �semi-Gnostic� heretic from Asia Minor), who removed what he regarded as interpolations from the Gospel According to Luke; the lost Gnostic Gospel of Perfection; and the Gospel of

Biblical Literature, Acts

2005-02-08T21:32:00.000-08:00

The various acts, close in form and content to the contemporary Hellenistic romances, turned the apostolic drama into melodrama and satisfied the popular taste for stories of travel and adventure, as well as for a kind of asceticism that was generally rejected by Christian leaders: Andrew (including the Acts of Andrew and Matthias Among the Cannibals), Barnabas

Alaric Ii

2005-02-08T01:37:00.000-08:00

His dominions comprised Spain (except the kingdom of Galicia), Aquitaine, Languedoc, and western Provence. Alaric, like his father, was an Arian Christian, but he mitigated the persecution of Catholics and authorized the Catholic council at Agde in 506. To provide a law code for his Roman subjects, he appointed a

Biblical Literature, Letters

2005-02-07T23:45:00.000-08:00

Among the apocryphal letters are: a 2nd-century Epistula Apostolorum (�Epistle of the Apostles�; actually apocalyptic and antiheretical), the Letter of Barnabas, a lost Letter of Paul to the Alexandrians (said to have been forged by followers of Marcion), the late-2nd-century letter called �III Corinthians� (part of the Acts of Paul and composed largely out of the genuine letters

Thom, Ren� Fr�d�ric

2005-02-07T16:18:00.000-08:00

Thom graduated from the �cole Normale Sup�rieure (now part of the Universities of Paris) in 1946, spent four years at the nearby National Centre for Scientific Research, and in 1951 was awarded a doctorate

Biblical Literature, Apocalypses

2005-02-06T09:37:00.000-08:00

In addition, it should be noted that there were

Kediri

2005-02-06T08:12:00.000-08:00

Ancient �Kadiri� traditional region and modern kabupaten (regency) of eastern Java, Indonesia. From the 11th to the early 13th century, Kediri was the dominant kingdom in eastern Java, renowned for its naval and commercial strength and for its achievements in literature. It was absorbed into the later kingdoms of Singasari and Majapahit and then by the central Java kingdom of Mataram.

Ring

2005-02-05T21:54:00.000-08:00

In mathematics, a set having an addition that must be commutative (a b = b a for any a, b) and associative [a (b c) = (a b) c for any a, b, c], and a multiplication that must be associative [a(bc) = (ab)c for any a, b, c]. There must also be a zero, an identity element, negatives of all elements, and a distributive law relating addition and multiplication [a(b c) = ab ac and (a b)c = ac bc for any a, b, c]. A commutative ring

Biblical Literature, Biblical literature in the liturgy of Judaism

2005-02-05T06:31:00.000-08:00

Because the synagogue arose in a land separated from the Jerusalem Temple with its sacrificial

Biblical Literature, Joel

2005-02-04T06:28:00.000-08:00

The Book of Joel, the second of the Twelve (Minor) Prophets, is a short work of only three chapters. The dates of Joel (whose name means �Yahweh is God�) are difficult to ascertain. Some scholars believe that the work comes from the Persian period (539 - 331 BCE); others hold that it was written soon after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. His references to a locust plague may refer to an actual calamity

Biblical Literature, Eastern Orthodoxy

2005-02-04T02:55:00.000-08:00

The first Christians were Jews, and they worshipped along with other Jews in the synagogue. The earliest Gentile converts also attended the synagogue. When Christians met outside the synagogue, they still used its liturgy, read its Bible, and preserved the main characteristics of synagogue worship. Every historic liturgy is divided into (1) a Christian revision of

Aerodynamics

2005-02-03T15:38:00.000-08:00

Branch of physics that deals with the motion of air and other gaseous fluids and with the forces acting on bodies passing through such a fluid. Aerodynamics seeks, in particular, to explain the principles governing the flight of aircraft, rockets, and missiles. It is also concerned with the design of automobiles, high-speed trains, and ships, as well as with the construction

Biblical Literature, Roman Catholicism

2005-02-03T04:31:00.000-08:00

Liturgical worship in both Judaism and Christianity is an action that moves within the framework of biblical ideas and explains itself in biblical language. Preoccupied with really different views from opposite windows, Jews and Christians have often overlooked the common heritage that they share. This has likewise been true of the differences between Eastern

Nachikufan Industry

2005-02-02T19:57:00.000-08:00

Industry of the African Late Stone Age practiced by hunting-gathering peoples who occupied the wooded plateaus of south-central Africa some 10,000 - 11,000 years ago. The Nachikufan tool industry is characterized by projectiles with several kinds of microlithic heads, heavy stone scrapers that were probably used for working wood and its by-products, flattish stones with centre-bored

Biblical Literature, Protestantism

2005-02-02T00:45:00.000-08:00

The term Protestant covers so wide a variety of theological views and religious and cultural groups and so many different ways of worshipping and using the Bible in worship that it is virtually impossible to say anything about the liturgy or the Bible's place in worship that would be true of all Protestants. Among Anglicans, what was said of the Bible in the Roman

Biblical Literature, Protestantism

2005-02-01T14:51:00.000-08:00

Exegesis, or critical interpretation, and hermeneutics, or the science of interpretive principles, of the Bible have been used by both Jews and Christians throughout their histories for various purposes. The most common purpose has been that of discovering the truths and values of the Old and New Testaments by means of various techniques and principles, though

Biblical Literature, Nature and significance

2005-01-31T22:48:00.000-08:00

Biblical exegesis is the actual interpretation of the sacred book, the bringing out of its meaning; hermeneutics is the study and establishment of the principles by which it is to be interpreted. Where the biblical writings are interpreted on a historical perspective, just as with philological and other ancient documents, there is little call for a special discipline

Kudymkar

2005-01-31T16:55:00.000-08:00

City and administrative centre of Komi-Permyak autonomous okrug (district), Perm oblast (province), western Russia. It lies along the Inva River at the latter's confluence with the Kuva River in the Northern Ural Mountains. Founded in the 16th century, Kudymkar grew rapidly after 1925, and it became a town in 1938. Industrial enterprises include timber milling and food processing.

Heimwehr

2005-01-30T17:04:00.000-08:00

(German: Home Defense Force), any of the local organizations formed in various parts of Austria to expel invading Yugoslavs or preserve order immediately after World War I. Composed of conservative-minded country dwellers, the Heimwehr came to represent much of the Austrian right wing between World Wars I and II. Imbued with corporativism (an authoritarian view

Biblical Literature, Biblical criticism

2005-01-30T11:51:00.000-08:00

A prerequisite for the exegetical study of the biblical writings, and even for the establishment of hermeneutical principles, is their critical examination. Most forms of biblical criticism are relevant to many other bodies of literature.

Proconsul

2005-01-29T09:34:00.000-08:00

Latin �Pro Consule, or Proconsul, � in the ancient Roman Republic, a consul whose powers had been extended for a definite period after his regular term of one year. From the mid-4th century BC the Romans recognized the necessity, during lengthy wars, of extending the terms of certain magistrates; such extension was termed prorogatio. Initially prorogation was voted by the people, but soon the Senate assumed

Biblical Literature, Textual criticism

2005-01-29T00:20:00.000-08:00

Textual criticism is concerned with the basic task of establishing, as far as possible, the original text of the documents on the basis of the available materials. For the Old Testament, until 1947, these materials consisted principally of: (1) Hebrew manuscripts dated from the 9th century AD onward, the Masoretic text, the traditional Jewish text with its vocalization and punctuation

Biblical Literature, Philological criticism

2005-01-28T03:17:00.000-08:00

Philological criticism consists mainly in the study of the biblical languages in their widest scope, so that the vocabulary, grammar, and style of the biblical writings can be understood as accurately as possible with the aid not only of other biblical writings but of other writings in the same or cognate languages. New Testament Greek, for example, is a representative

K�d�r, J�nos

2005-01-28T03:02:00.000-08:00

Original name �J�nos Czermanik, Czermanik �also spelled �Csermanek � premier of Hungary (1956 - 58, 1961 - 65) and first secretary (1956 - 88) of Hungary's Communist Party who played a key role in Hungary's transition from the 1956 anti-Soviet government of Imre Nagy to the pro-Soviet regime that followed. K�d�r managed to convince the Soviet Union to withdraw its troops and allow Hungary a modicum of internal independence

Biblical Literature, Literary criticism

2005-01-27T18:28:00.000-08:00

Literary criticism endeavours to establish the literary genres (types or categories) of the various documents and to reach conclusions about their structure, date, and authorship. These conclusions are based as far as possible on internal evidence, but external evidence is also very helpful, especially where date is concerned. If the document under consideration

India, Wars and rivalries

2005-01-27T11:22:00.000-08:00

Harihara II's death in 1404 was followed by a violent succession dispute among his three surviving sons. Only after two of them had been crowned and dethroned was the third, Devaraya I (reigned 1406 - 22), able to emerge victorious. Continuing instability, however, coupled with the involvement of Vijayanagar and the Bahmani sultanate as backers of different claimants to the throne

Tsu

2005-01-26T14:09:00.000-08:00

Capital, Mie ken (prefecture), Honshu, Japan. It lies along the mouth of the Ano River, facing Ise Bay. Tsu developed around a 16th-century castle and served as a post town and trade centre for cotton during the Tokugawa era (1603 - 1867). A modern cotton mill established in Tsu in 1898 was followed after World War II by factories producing electrical machines, glass, and appliances. During the

Biblical Literature, Tradition criticism

2005-01-26T10:39:00.000-08:00

Tradition criticism takes up where literary criticism leaves off; it goes behind the written sources to trace the development of oral tradition, where there is reason to believe that this preceded the earliest documentary stages, and attempts to trace the development of the tradition, phase by phase, from its primary life setting to its literary presentation.

Faesi, Robert

2005-01-25T20:12:00.000-08:00

Faesi combined his literary activity with a professorship of German literature at the University of Z�rich from 1922 to 1953. His poems in the collections Aus der Brandung (1917; �From

Biblical Literature, Form criticism

2005-01-25T00:24:00.000-08:00

Form criticism has become one of the most valuable tools for the reconstruction of the preliterary tradition. This discipline classifies the literary material according to the principal �forms� - such as legal, poetic, and other forms - represented in its contents, and examines these in order to discover how they were handed down and what their successive life settings

Printmaking, Aquatint

2005-01-24T16:11:00.000-08:00

Aquatint is a process used to etch tonal areas on the plate. The first step is to give the plate a porous ground by dusting it with rosin powder and fusing the powder to the plate by means of heat. When the plate is etched, the acid goes through the pores in the ground and bites tiny cavities in the metal. These cavities hold the ink. A variety of tones and textures can be created,

Biblical Literature, Redaction criticism

2005-01-24T03:26:00.000-08:00

Redaction criticism concentrates on the end product, studying the way in which the final authors or editors used the traditional material that they received and the special purpose that each had in view in incorporating this material into his literary composition. It has led of late to important conclusions about the respective outlooks and aims of Matthew,

Biblical Literature, Historical criticism

2005-01-23T11:42:00.000-08:00

Historical criticism places the documents in their historical setting and promotes their interpretation in the light of their contemporary environment. This is necessary for their understanding, whether they are historical in character or belong to another literary genre. If they are historical in character it is important to establish how faithfully they

Cohan, George M.

2005-01-23T01:43:00.000-08:00

At an early age he performed with his parents and sister, subsequently taking comedy roles in vaudeville and on the legitimate stage. By 1893 he was writing vaudeville skits and popular songs. His

Wildfowl Trust, The

2005-01-22T10:55:00.000-08:00

Centre of the world's largest collection of waterfowl. It was established in 1946 by Sir Peter Scott on 418 acres (169 hectares) along the River Severn near Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, Eng. Nearly a quarter of the land is fenced off for captive birds and breeding stock; the rest of the refuge is traditional wintering ground for many species of ducks and geese. In addition to accommodating

Biblical Literature,

2005-01-22T02:19:00.000-08:00

�History of religions� criticism, to use an ungainly expression, relates Old and New Testament religion to the religious situation of the contemporary world of the writings and tries to explain biblical religion as far as possible in terms of current religious attitudes and practices. This is helpful to a point, insofar as it throws into relief those features of

Tarakanova, Yelizaveta Alekseyevna

2005-01-21T11:30:00.000-08:00

She claimed to have been reared in St. Petersburg, but she was probably not Russian, and her origins and real name are unknown. She appeared in various cities of western Europe